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Art of Native America Historie om Squash Blossom-historien om Squash Blossom Halskjeder med Naja-anhenget I tusenvis av år har symboler fortalt historier og har også tjent som en metode for å få makt over kreftene og fenomenene som påvirker et samfunn eller en person. Den inverterte halvmåne anheng på squash-blomst halskjeder, kalt 39Naja39 av Navajo, finnes i ulike designformer over hele verden kulturer. Som halvmåne går dette skjemaet tilbake til Paleolithic perioden. Det er nevnt i dommernes bok som et pryd på slittene rundt kameler. I den fønikiske kulturen var Astarte gudinnen til fruktbarhet, og hun var også representert av den omvendte halvmåne. Som anheng er den omvendte halvmåne også funnet i gamle romerske og kreta gjenstander. I middelalderen reiste maurene ut av øst og erobret land i vestlig retning, inkludert åtte århundrer yrke i Spania. De adopterte symbolet som et brudepynt, og trodde at den omvendte halvmåne ville beskytte både seg selv og deres hester fra det onde øye39. Da spanjolene kom til Sør - og Mellom-Amerika, tok de den samme ideen med dem for å beskytte hestene og deres soldater. Morerne lærte således spansk, som lærte meksikanerne, som lærte Navajo sine trossystemer og metallurgi. Kommer fra en annen retning i Nord-Amerika, var det omvendte halvmåne symbolet på ulike typer handelsvarer hentet fra østkysten av andre europeere. Halvmåneanhenget ble brukt fra begynnelsen av 1800-tallet på, blant annet av Shawnee, Delaware, Cheyenne, Comanche og Navajo-stammene. Imidlertid ble metallarbeid av ulike europeiske påvirkninger funnet i sørvest så tidlig som på 1700-tallet. På denne tiden var Navajo voldsomme krigere som oftere raidet, men av og til handlet med sine naboer, Plains-stammene. Ved 1820-tallet hadde Southern Plains metalarbeidere lært prosessene for kutting, stempling og kald hammering. Mye av dette arbeidet ble produsert i tysk sølv. Tysk sølv var en annen legering i forhold til det meksikanske sølv, som ofte ble brukt av Navajo. Gjennom kontakt med enten den spanske andor de forskjellige slettene, valgte Navajo symbolet for den omvendte halvmåne for sine hester. Najaen ble satt på hestestallstallet, hesteborstens fremre senterbånd, og senere flyttet Naja inn i halsenes rike. I et intervju fra 1930-tallet, hver gang Navajo, som hadde råd til et sølvhodestall, hadde en på sin hest, ifølge Gray Mustache, en Navajo-sølvsmed som arbeidet kunsten fra slutten av 1800-tallet inn i 1900-tallet. I begynnelsen av 1900 fotografier av Hopi dansere, kan Naja ses som sentral komponent i beaded halskjeder. Evnen til å jobbe i sølv, lær og andre metaller, tillot Navajo å flytte sin kultur fra et krigssamfunn til mer av et handelsselskap. Der prestisje og rikdom var kommet fra raiding, kom det nå fra herding og ulike kunstformer. Silverworking var en svært viktig del av denne endringen. Ifølge Navajo er symbolet på Naja dekorativt, og tjener ingen hensikt enten som et åndelig symbol eller som et bestemt symbol. Likevel holdes Naja i svært høyt respektert av Navajo, så vel som andre mennesker. Et symbol på squash blossom finnes på gamle petroglyphs på Saguaro National Monument i Arizona. Det antas at blomst symbolet vi vanligvis ser i halskjeder ble hentet til Navajo ved århundreskiftet, 1800-tallet til 1900-tallet. Blomsten er representert med lange kronblad som begynner å åpne og en kule festet på blomstens basis. Blomstpendelen er en representasjon av den spansk-meksikanske granatepleen, og en variant av denne utformingen finnes i motivet i Granada, Spania. I Amerika hadde spanske koloniale herrer variasjoner av disse granatäppleblomstene på sine skjorter, kapper og bukser som sølvutsmykninger. Noen squash blossom halskjeder som dateres fra 188039s og 189039s var laget med håndhammerte meksikanske sølvmynter, med Naja i samme design som Moor Horse Horse T-skjorten. Najas finnes på alle slags halskjeder, men ikke alle squash blomsterkjeder sport Najas. Og det er halskjeder med både blomstene og Najas, samt andre designelementer som religiøse symboler. Etter hvert som tiden har utviklet seg, har både squashblomstene og Naja utviklet seg til ulike design og stiler. I dag fortsetter disse halsbåndene å utvikle seg forbi de tradisjonelle sølv og turkise elementene og beveger seg inn i gull, diamanter og andre interessante materialer og god skjønnhet. På River Trading Post tilbyr vi et godt utvalg av squash blossom halskjeder. Bla gjennom vår smykker samling. Spesielt problem: Konflikt, forhandling og mekling på tvers av kulturer: høydepunkter fra den fjerde toårige konferansen av International Academy for interkulturell forskning Acculturation: Lev med suksess i to kulturer John W. Berry. Psykologisk avdeling, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6 Godtatt 10. juli 2005. Tilgjengelig online 6. oktober 2005. Temat for denne konferansen fokuserer på konflikt og forhandling. I dette papiret tar jeg et eksempel på disse problemene, og undersøker de kulturelle og psykologiske aspektene ved disse fenomenene som foregår under prosessen med akkulturering. Under akkulturering engasjerer grupper av mennesker og deres individuelle medlemmer interkulturell kontakt, som gir potensial for konflikt og behovet for forhandling for å oppnå resultater som er adaptive for begge parter. Forskning om akulturering, inkludert akkulturasjonsstrategier, endringer i atferd og akkulturativ stress blir vurdert. Det er store gruppe - og individuelle forskjeller i hvordan mennesker (i begge grupper i kontakt) går om deres akkulturering (beskrevet med hensyn til integrering, assimilering, separasjon og marginalisering), hvor mye stress de opplever, og hvor godt de tilpasser seg psykologisk og sosiokulturelt. Generelt, de som forfølger integrasjonsstrategien, opplever mindre stress, og oppnår bedre tilpasninger enn de som forfølger marginalisering. Resultatene for dem som forfølger assimilasjon og separasjonserfaring, er mellomstore nivåer av stress og tilpasning. Implikasjoner for offentlig politikk og personlige retningslinjer for akkulturering er foreslått. Med hensyn til konferansetemaet, siden integrasjon krever betydelig forhandling, men som resulterer i minst konflikt, kan konseptene og funnene som er gjennomgått her, gi noen veiledning for bedre interkulturelle relasjoner. Akkulturasjon Intergroup relasjoner Innvandrere Tlf. 1 613 542 8095 faks: 1 613 533 2499. Opphavsrett 2005 Elsevier Ltd. Alle rettigheter reservert. Citer artikler () Miri Country Music Festival 2017 25 februar 26, 2017 Parkcity Everly Hotel, Miri 11 mars, 12, 2017, 10:00 19:00 Vivacity Event Hall, nivå 2 C Atrium Program Pendakian Bukit Sadok Betong 29 -30 Ulu Layar, Betong (Doni 013-8088044 Sunarthi 016-5784479) Borneo Jazz Festival 2017 12 mai, 13, 2017 Parkcity Everly Hotel, Miri Rainforest World Music Festival 2017 14 juli 8211 16, 2017 Sarawak Cultural Village, Kuching Borneo Cultural Festival 2017 20-29 juli, Sibu Town Square, Sibu hjertet av Borneo Highlands Eco Challenge II 20. juli 8211 29 Bario, Miri Sibu International Dance Festival 2017 28. august 8211 2. september kl. 19:30 Sibu Borneo International Perler Conference 2017 13-15 oktober Den Waterfront Hotel, Kuching Borneo Talent Awards 2017 November 24 8211 25 Sibu Town Square Ruhiang Kiulu Eventyrutfordring 15 Jan 2017 Tamparuli Tamu Ground, Tamparuli Town 17th City Day Celebration 2 Feb 2017 Padang M Erdeka, Kota Kinabalu Kinesisk nyttårsfestival, Pitas 2017 11 8211 12 Feb 2017 Dataran Salimpodon Laut, Pitas City Day Åpen Regatta 25 8211 26 Feb 2017 Kinabalu Yacht Club, Tanjung Aru Tambunan Mat og Cuisin Festival 29 Mar 2017 Pisompuruan Square, Tambunan Kalimaran Festival 1 8211 30 Apr 2017 Murut Cultural Center, Tenom Japansk matmesse 7 8211 16 Apr 2017 Center Atrium, GF, 1Borneo Hypermall Rungus Kiansamung Festival 20 8211 22 Apr 2017 Kg. Tinangol, Matunggong, Kudat Regatta Lepa Semporna 21 8211 23 Apr 2017 Regatta Lepa Square, Semporna Sabah Internasjonal Fiske Turnering 2017 25 8211 30 Apr 2017 Pulau Layang-Layang 6. Bundle Festival 28 Apr 8211 1 Mai 2017 Tawau Sports Complex Sabah Fest 2017 5 8211 7 Mai 2017 Mabul World Turtle Day 8 8211 11. mai 2017 Borneo Divers Mabul Resort, Mabul Island, Semporna Pitas Bengkoka Festival Amp Harvest Festival 2017 10 8211 14 Mai 2017 Bengkoka Square, Pitas 4. Sabah FCAS International Dragon Boat Race 13 8211 14. mai 2017 Likas Bay Kota Kinabalu Harvest Festival, Matunggong 13. mai 2017 Matunggong Community Hall Harvest Festival, Kota Belud 14. mai 2017 Internasjonalt Museum Dag 15 8211 18 Mai 2017 Sabah Museum Tambunan Distrikt Nivå Ka8217amatan Festivalsfestival 20. mai 2017 Pisompuruan Square, Tambunan Harvest Festival Open Regatta 27 8211 28. mai 2017 Kinabalu Yacht Club, Tanjung Aru Kota Kinabalu Tadau Kaamatan 8211 Harvest Festival 8211 Finale 30 8211 31. mai 2017 Kadazan Du Sun Cultural Association (KDCA) Magahau Festival 1 8211 31 Jul 2017 Puruvan Square, Pekan Matunggong Moginakan Festival 1 8211 2 Jul 2017 Kg. Nunuk Ragang, Tompios, Ranau Kota Kinabalu Internasjonale Filmfestival (KKIFF) 7 8211 16 Jul 2017 MBO Imago Mall Kudat Festival 14 8211 16 Jul 2017 Sidek Esplanade, Kudat Sabah Museum Dag 15 Jul 8211 31 Des 2017 Sabah Museum 10. Kota Kinabalu Jazz Festival 21 8211 22 jul 2017 Dekk Tennisbane, Sutera Harbour Marina Golf Amp Country Club, Kota Kinabalu World Youth Folk Dansfestival 25 8211 30 Jul 2017 Sabah Cultural Center, Penampang Warriors8217 Dagsfesten 31 Jul 2017 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Lansering av Merdeka Måned 1 Aug 2017 Flower Festival 26 8211 27 Aug 2017 Sabah Landbrukspark Merdeka Day Open Regatta 26 8211 27 Aug 2017 Kinabalu Yacht Club, Tanjung Aru Kota Kinabalu National Day 31 Aug 2017 Jalan Tun Fuad Stephens, Kota Kinabalu Kota Marudu Festival 2016 1 nov 2017 Dataran Pentas Utama Kota Marudu Amp Town Felt Kota Marudu Tambunan Music Festival 25. november 2017 Tondulu River Park Plattform, Tambunan Harvest Festival, Kota Marudu 15. desember 2017 Kota Marudu Community Hall D Ataran Kota Marudu Brunei Open Fencing Championship 2017 Mandag 9. januar Bandar Seri Begawan 1. POUND rockout trening Fatburnextreme Masterclass fredag ​​13. januar Unit 5, Block B, 1. etasje Atiya Complex, Spg 100, Jln Jerudong, Bandar Seri Begawan Torsdag 23. februar Brunei Beach Bunch8217s Trail Utfordring søndag 26. februar Bandar Seri Begawan Bryan Adams Get Up Tour 2017 21. januar 2017 8211 Stadion Malawati, Shah Alam Den fantastiske verden av Disney på isen (100 års feiring) 25. mars 2017 til 26. mars 2017 Stadion Malawati, Shah Alam Program Pendakian Bukit Sadok Betong (The Malaysia Book of Records) 29. april -30 Ulu Layar, Betong (Doni 013-8088044 Sunarthi 016-5784479) Topp islam, som kristendom, jødedom og andre verdensreligioner, varierer i sine tolkninger, ritualer og praksis. Det er sant at muslimer deler visse grunnleggende trosretninger, som de som uttrykkes i shahadah. Troets yrke: Det er bare én Gud, og at Muhammed er hans profet som ble åpenbart Koranen. Likevel, som religionen utviklet seg etter Muhammads død og spredte seg utenfor arabia til mange forskjellige regioner og kulturer, fra Bosnia og Kina til Jemen og Zanzibar, ble det tolket på ulike måter. Dette mangfoldet var resultatet av kjernesettet av religiøs tro som interagerer på komplekse måter med de mange forskjellige sammenhenger hvor muslimer bodde. Hver av disse sammenhenger er definert av flere faktorer, inkludert dens historie, kulturelle tradisjoner, dens sosiale, økonomiske, politiske strukturer og dens geografi og fysiske plassering i verden. Å anerkjenne denne virkeligheten, sier Abdol Karim Soroush, en moderne iransk intellektuell, at det ikke er noe som en ren islam eller en a-historisk islam som ligger utenfor historisk utviklingsprosess. Den faktiske levde opplevelsen av islam har alltid vært kulturelt og historisk spesifikk og bundet av de umiddelbare omstendigheter av sin plassering i tid og rom. Hvis vi skulle ta et øyeblikksbilde av islam som det levde i dag, ville det avsløre et mangfold av levende erfaringer som er forskjellige, men likevel eksisterende samtidig. (Som sitert i Farish Noor, New Voices of Islam. 2002, 15-16). Å holde denne historiske virkeligheten i tankene er tydelig at islams historie involverer folk med mange forskjellige raser, etnisiteter og kulturer, mange litteraturer og språk, med mange historier og et myriade av tolkninger, hvorav noen kan være i konflikt med hverandre. Ikke overraskende, i lys av dette mangfoldet, skrev sen Edward Said, Universitetsprofessor i engelsk ved Columbia University og en kulturell og litterær kritiker, Problemene som alle forsøker å si noe forståelig, nyttig eller nøyaktig om islam er legion. Man bør derfor begynne med å snakke om islamere i stedet for islam (som læreren Aziz al-Azmeh gjør i sin utmerkede bok Islams and Modernities), og deretter fortsette å spesifisere hvilken type, under hvilken bestemt tid man snakker om. Han fortsetter med å si at med tanke på kompleksiteten og mangfoldet av konkret menneskelig erfaring, er det mye mer fornuftig å prøve å snakke om forskjellige former for islam, på forskjellige øyeblikk, for forskjellige mennesker, på forskjellige felt. lite skritt utover kjerne trosretninger (siden selv de er svært vanskelig å redusere til et enkelt sett av doktrinære regler) og sentraliteten til Koranen Quran, har man kommet inn i en forbløffende komplisert verden, hvis enorme man kanskje engang sier utænkelig kollektiv historie alene har ennå ikke bli skrevet. (Umulige historier: hvorfor de mange islamene ikke kan forenkles, Harpers Magazine, juli 2002, 69-74). Det islamske kulturstudiet kurset er en invitasjon til å utforske et lite stykke av det rike og blendende mangfoldet som karakteriserer islamens verdener ved å undersøke den dynamiske samspillet mellom religiøs tro og praksis og deres politiske, økonomiske, sosiale, litterære og kunstneriske sammenhenger over tid og plass. Foruten eksponering for nytt innholdsmateriale, er kurset også ment å utstyre deg med verktøyene for å analysere og tenke kritisk om hva det betyr å studere ikke bare islam, men enhver annen religiøs tradisjon i sin kulturelle sammenheng. I denne bredere forstand handler dette kurset om hvordan man studerer religion i en akademisk sammenheng. Den underliggende premissen til kursopplæringen er kulturelt konstruert, som gjelder for studiet av kristne, jødiske, buddhistiske eller hinduistiske tradisjoner som det er for studiet av islam. For å forstå religionens rolle i menneskelige samfunn, mener kurset, må vi gå utover beskrivende oppsummeringer av tro og praksis og se på dem som levende og dynamiske tradisjoner som stadig forandrer seg i forhold til deres tilhørere. Til slutt vil dette kurset gi deg bedre leseferdighet om studiet av religion generelt og bedre bevissthet om kompleksiteten involvert i en slik studie. Uten tvil troende på mange trosretninger som vil være vanskelige med å forstå den vitenskapelige og analytiske tilnærmingen som vi har diskutert ovenfor, som er villige til å forstå sin religion fra et hengiven perspektiv. Noen muslimer kan for eksempel insistere på at det bare er én islam og forskjeller, hvis de eksisterer, er overfladiske. Men denne oppfatningen er selv påvirket av en viss kulturell sammenheng. Slike muslimer er ikke alene i denne oppfatningen fordi det er ikke-muslimer som også tenker på islam som en enhetlig, homogen monolit. Mer nylig, spesielt etter 911, har en rekke historikere, politiske forskere, journalister, offentlige intellektuelle også betraktet islam som en mega-sivilisasjonsblokk som strekker seg over hele verden, som er i konflikt med det såkalte vest som de også tenker som en selvstendig og enhetlig sivilisasjon. Lesingene valgt for sesjon 1 fra Carl Ernsts bok, Følgende Muhammad. Begynn med en kritisk undersøkelse av måten i hvilken oppfatning av islam, og for det saks skyld forestillinger, er kulturelt og politisk konstruert av muslimer og ikke-muslimer. Lesingene fra følgende Muhammad undersøker også kildene til den islamske tradisjonen, og gir en kort oversikt over den avgjørende rolle som Muhammed som islamets profet og Koranen spiller som islamsk skrift ved å definere muslimsk religiøs, sosial og politisk bevissthet. Vi vil utforske hver av disse kildene mer detaljert i Sesjoner to, tre og fire. Det andre settet av lesninger, fra Islas historiske Atlas. etter en kort oppsummering av grunnleggende tro og praksis, kartlegge den historiske ekspansjonen av arabisk muslimsk keiserlig styre utenfor den arabiske halvøyen, som dekker perioden mellom 600 og 1100 e. Kr. Kart illustrerer hvordan den islamske troen begynte i den arabiske verden, men spredte seg til andre områder hvor lokal kultur, geografi, språk og etnisitet påvirket tro og praksis. Etableringen av arabisk regjering i Midtøsten førte til utviklingen av handelsruter som ble kontrollert av muslimske selgere, og bringer inn mye rikdom til de raskt voksende imperier. Med den politiske og økonomiske ekspansjonen utviklet arabisk språk til et internasjonalt språk for administrasjon, kultur, læring og handel. Ettersom arabisk makt utvidet seg over flere områder i Midtøsten og Middelhavsregionen, ble ikke-arabiske tradisjoner, spesielt persiske og grekromeristiske, integrert. Resultatet var en kosmopolitisk sivilisasjon der arabisk kultur spilte en viktig rolle, men som også deltok i mange forskjellige etniske og religiøse grupper. Den historiske undersøkelsen konkluderer med en kort diskusjon av korstogene og forsøkene fra riddere fra de kristne kongerikene i Latin-Vest-England (inkludert England, Skandinavia, Tyskland, Italia og Frankrike) for å bryte politisk kontroll over det hellige land fra muslimske hersker, som skader positive relasjoner som tidligere hadde eksistert mellom muslimer og øst-ortodokse kristne i Midtøsten. Veiledende spørsmål øverst Når du reflekterer over lesningene i Følgende Muhammad og Islams historiske atlas, bør du vurdere følgende spørsmål: Vurder Carl Ernsts uttalelse. Det er trygt å si at ingen religion har et så negativt bilde i vestlige øyne som islam. (s. 11) Hvorfor er dette så Hvordan har politiske og økonomiske forhold mellom Midtøsten og Vest-Europa og USA påvirket oppfatninger av islam i fortiden og i dag? Hvordan har de påvirket oppfatninger av Vesten blant muslimer Carl Ernst skriver , Religion eksisterer aldri i et vakuum. Den er alltid sammenvevd med flere kulturer og historie som knytter den til bestemte steder. Religionens retorikk må settes inn i en sammenheng, slik at vi kjenner både målene og motstanderne til bestemte talsmenn. (s. 30). Diskuter denne setningen ved hjelp av eksempler fra amerikansk historie. Hvordan har begrepet begrepet religion endret seg over tid Hvordan har de påvirket oppfatningen av islam og dens studie Hva er opprinnelsen til den islamske troen Hvorfor kan muslimer og ikke-muslimer svare på dette spørsmålet på annen måte På hvilke måter er det hensiktsmessig og uhensiktsmessig å skille mellom Islamsk sivilisasjon og vestlig sivilisasjon øverste islam, som kristendommen, jødedommen og andre verdensreligioner, varierer i sine tolkninger, ritualer og praksis. Det er sant at muslimer deler visse grunnleggende trosretninger, som de som uttrykkes i shahadah. Troens yrke: Det er hellip Kommentarer Off på Seminar One: Tradisjonskilder øverst Muhammad, islamets profet, er blant de mest innflytelsesrike tallene i menneskets historie. For millioner av muslimer rundt om i verden har profeten Muhammad blitt paradigmet, eller modellmodellen, som er verdig til å bli emulert. Som Guds utvalgte profet og budbringer bestemte han best hvordan han skulle leve et liv i samsvar med Guds vilje. I denne forstand oppfattes han og profetene foran ham, inkludert Abraham, Moses, Josef, Jakob og Jesus, som eksemplarisk muslim s, bokstavelig talt, de som virkelig har underkastet Guds vilje. Ikke overraskende er profet Muhammads sedvanlige atferd (sunnah) en viktig kilde, kun for Koranen, for å bestemme de juridiske, samfunnsmessige og pietistiske normer for muslimske samfunn. Hadith. eller kontoer som registrerer profetens ord og gjerninger, er en viktig kilde til profetisk sunnah. For mange muslimer er Muhammad ikke bare veilederen, men forbifarten, hjelperen i vanskelighetsgrad, mystikeren, vennen og til og med de kjære. For en bedre forståelse av noen av rollene som muslimer har sett profeten sin, må vi ikke bare fokusere på den historiske figuren til Muhammed, som bodde i det syvende århundre Arabia (Muhammed av historien), men også på Muhammed som han har blitt tolket av millioner av muslimer gjennom århundrene som bor i forskjellige geografiske og kulturelle lokaler (Muhammed gjennom historien). Lesingene i Session Two hjelper oss med å utforske tolkninger av Muhammads figur over historisk tid og geografisk rom som tegner på eksempler fra poesi, folkelitteratur og visuell kunst. Ved å bruke litteratur og kunst som kulturlinser, der man kan se profeten, kan vi bedre forstå den rolle som litterære og kunstneriske sammenhenger spiller i å påvirke tolkningen og uttrykket av religiøse konsepter og symboler. En slik tilnærming tillater oss også tilgang til de personlige stemmeene til poeter og kunstnerne som uttrykt i deres verk, stemmer som ofte drukner ut av stemmer av formelle og offisielle religiøse myndigheter og tekster. Valgene for dette seminaret trekker på to typer litteratur som skildrer profeten Muhammad: diktene fra Sør-Asia (det indiske subkontinentet) og Afrika sør for Sahara og folkehistorier fra Hui, et muslimsk samfunn i Kina, som illustrerer måten Figuren av Muhammed tolkes innenfor rammen av kinesiske folkloristiske tradisjoner. Fra Sør-Asia har vi eksempler på poesi fra Urdu og Sindhi, begge indo-ariske språk skrevet i et skript basert på det arabiske alfabetet. I løpet av sin historiske utvikling har begge språk fått vesentlig ordforråd avledet fra arabisk og persisk. Talt av over 150 millioner mennesker, er Urdu det offisielle språket i Pakistan og også et av de nasjonale språkene i India. Utover Sør-Asia, er Urdu rutinemessig talt som et første eller et annet språk i innvandrerbefolkninger av Sør-Asiatisk opprinnelse i mange deler av verden, inkludert USA. Urdu poesi inkluderer en særegen genre kalt nat. eller sammensetning som forherrer Muhammed. Disse natts kan være skrevet i forskjellige poetiske målere og former. Valgene av nat s, som inngår i avlesningene, illustrerer det spesielle forholdet som eksisterer mellom komponistene av diktene og Muhammad, deres elskede profet, et forhold som i noen tilfeller har en noe romantisk hengivenhet til det. Muhammad er portrettert som en hjelper og en venn, med poeter som søker hans forbønnelse for tilgivelse av deres synder. Slike anledninger viser at Muhammed er oppfattet som å ha en mystisk og åndelig dimensjon til hans personlighet muliggjort ved sitt spesielle forhold til Gud. Skriving av sanger eller dikt som glorifiserer Muhammed, var ikke begrenset bare til muslimske poeter, vår prøve viser eksempler på slike dikt også skrevet av ikke-muslimer. Sindhi er snakkes overveiende i regionen Sind, den sørlige provinsen av dagens Pakistan, hjemmet til den gamle indusdalen sivilisasjonen. Språket er også talt av spredte grupper av Sindhis som bor i mange byer over India. Sindhi-muslimer bruker morsmålet til å uttrykke kjærlighet og høyt hensyn til profeten Muhammed. Mange av temaene i urdu poesi finnes også i sindhi poesi. Et karakteristisk trekk ved sindhi poesi er tendensen til å rose Muhammed og representere ham i symboler kjent for lokal kultur og litteratur. Dette er oppnådd av poeter som inneholder folkesagn og romanser som allegoriske referanser eller følger visse lokale litterære konvensjoner. En spesielt slående konvensjon har mannlige poeter som vedtar den kvinnelige stemmen til å henvende profeten som en lengt etter brudgom eller elskede. Mens det virker rart for samtidens vestlige publikum, er denne bruken helt i tråd med etos av devotional poesi i mange deler av Nord-India og Pakistan, der menneskets sjel alltid er tenkt å være i den feminine modusen i sitt hengivne forhold til det guddommelige. Poesiens valg fra Afrika sør for Sahara er sammensatt i Hausa og Swahili, som i stor grad er snakkes i henholdsvis Vest-og Øst-Afrika. Begge tilhører Bantu-familien av språk. På grunn av gamle kulturelle og økonomiske bånd med den arabisktalende verden (Hausa gjennom trans-Sahara-handel som forbinder Vest-Afrika med Nord-Afrika-swahili gjennom handelsnettene over Det indiske hav mellom østkyst av Afrika og Arabia), har begge språk absorbert en betydelig komponent av arabisk ordforråd. Historisk har endrede former for det arabiske alfabetet blitt brukt til å skrive Hausa og Swahili. Med den kommende europeiske kolonialismen ble imidlertid det latinske alfabetet vedtatt som det offisielle skriptet. Spredningen av islam blant Hausa og Swahili-talende folk har resultert i at begge språk blir viktige kjøretøy for uttrykk for islamsk hengivenhet. Diktet i Hausa er sammensatt av Asma (d. 1865), datter til den berømte 1700-tallets reformator av islam, Usuman dan Fodio (d. 1817). Vi skal lære mer om Usuman dan Fodio og hans reformistiske ideologi i sesjonen. ) Kjent for sin ondskap, så vel som hennes læring, skrev Asma poesi på tre språk, arabisk, Hausa og Fulfulde. Hun var spesielt begavet i hennes evne til å uttrykke islamske konsepter i lokale afrikanske idiomer, skrive så mange som seksti verk under hennes levetid. Bortsett fra hennes religiøsitet og litterære evner, hvilte Asmas popularitet også på hennes veldedige verker for de marginaliserte i sitt samfunn, samt hennes bidrag til å fremme utdanning for kvinner. Hennes dikt, Ode i Bud av Budet, et eksempel på en type poesi som heter madih. Profetisk panegyrisk, er en av hennes mest kjente komposisjoner på Hausa-språket. Swahili-valget er en poetisk beretning om miraj - eller profeten Muhammads oppstigning gjennom himmelen. De tradisjonelle regnskapene forteller at en natt, profeten Muhammad, montert på en mytisk skapning som heter Buraq og med engel Gabriel som sin guide, gikk først til Jerusalem, der etter å ha ledet de andre profetene i bønn, steg han opp gjennom de forskjellige himlene og kulminerte denne reisen i ansikt til ansikt møte med Gud. Muslimer har forskjellig seg hverandre med hensyn til tolkningen av denne hendelsen, med den mer mystisk tenkende tolke den som et åndelig allegorium for den menneskelige sjels reise, en slags Pilgrims Progress. Muhammads miraj dannet for islamens mystikere prototypen av oppstigningen av hver sjel til høyere åndelige rikdommer. Miraj blir et populært emne for muslimske poeter på mange språk, spesielt som det tillater diktere å forestille seg og skildre kreativt en svært esoterisk opplevelse. Forresten er det sterke bevis for at muslimske poetiske regnskap for miraj, som nåer Europa gjennom arabiske domstoler i middelalder Spania, inspirerte den italienske forfatteren Dante til å komponere sitt berømte verk, The Divine Comedy. Som det fremgår av malingsvalgene, har miraj gitt inspirasjon ikke bare til poeter, men også til kunstnere. Illustrasjonene som er inkludert her, er fra et femtende århundre manuskript kalt Miraj Nameh-verken på Miraj. Det var et av de store mesterverkene som ble produsert i studioer knyttet til kongedomstolen ved Herat (for tiden i dagens Afghanistan). På disse kongelige studioene produserte kalligrafene, belyste og bokbindere overdådige manuskripter for det store og berømte biblioteket av herskeren Shah Rukh (1396-1477), sønn av Tamerlane. Det antas at Mir Haydar, forfatteren av teksten, oversatte den til en dialekt av tyrkisk fra en arabisk original. Kunstverket er veldig fargerikt og skildrer ulike scener under profet Muhammads himmelske reise. Mens kunstnerne og protektorens tilknytning til denne manuskripttradisjonen var tydeligvis komfortabel med profetens figuralrepresentasjon, og viser selv ansiktet hans, er det muslimer som anser disse avbildelsene som avgudsdyrkelse og dermed bør forbudt. Som sådan vil de foretrekke anikoniske representasjoner av profeten kanskje gjennom andre kunstformer som poesi og kalligrafi. Veiledende spørsmål Når du leser og diskuterer valgene, bør du vurdere følgende spørsmål: Hvert av disse diktene fremkaller et intimt forhold til profeten Muhammad. Når du leser dem, bør du vurdere betydningen av dette medlet av hengivenhet. Hva er elementene som gjør denne typen poesi til et effektivt middel for å kommunisere religiøse følelser og ond hengivenhet. Intimiteten uttrykt i diktene gjør det mulig for et vindu inn i poeter og publikum å forstå bestemte forståelser av Muhammad og hans oppdrag til menneskeheten. Hvordan er Muhammads profetiske rolle bevilget og akkulturert i hver av disse tradisjonene Med andre ord, hvordan har misjonen vært personlig meningsfull for dikteren og publikum. Vurder disse samme spørsmålene som du leser valgene fra Mythology and Folklore of the Hui. I hvilken grad avslører mytene til Hui islamsk andorisk kinesisk identitet. Hvordan blir disse identitetene forhandlet i historiene. Hvilken påvirkning har lokale kunstneriske tradisjoner på mirajens illustrasjoner. Hva kan vi fortelle om de estetiske normer som har påvirket figurbildene (profeten, englene), deres klær, naturlige elementer (himmelen, skyene osv.) Og arkitektoniske trekk Hvordan håndterer denne kunstneriske tradisjonen hvordan disse illustrasjonene reflekterer Tiltenkt publikum (rettslige og aristokratiske sirkler) Hvordan påvirker kulturelle sammenhenger og aksepterte estetiske normer Jesu representasjoner i kristne tradisjoner rundt om i verden Hvorfor føler noen muslimer seg komfortabel å skildre profeten (spesielt ansiktet) Hvorfor vil andre vurdere dette for å være støtende? and hence forbidden What factors, aside from theological ones, could be involved in determining these attitudes What is the difference between poetic and figural depictions of the Prophet top Muhammad, Prophet of Islam, ranks amongst the most influential figures in human history. For millions of Muslims around the world, the Prophet Muhammad has become the paradigm, or role model, who is worthy of being emulated. As Gods hellip Comments Off on Seminar Two: Muhammad through History top Session Four readings consider the Quran as a written literary text, that is, in its physical form as a compiled book. Discussion of the Qurans style, structure and contents, its terminology and world-view and the diverse ways in which Muslim communities interpret it, help the reader understand the mechanics of this book that is of central significance to Muslims around the world. To provide a broader frame of reference for the study of the Quranic text as well as an understanding of the manner in which the Islamic tradition relates itself to Christianity and Judaism, the session includes an examination of the story of Joseph in a comparative context, that is, its narration in the Bible and the Quran. The readings on the Joseph story and its literary and artistic expressions in various cultural contexts invite an exploration of the role that cultural contexts play in creating diverse Muslim interpretations of the same text. The brief discussion of eight central themes of the Quran, in the readings from Kenneth Cragg, lays the foundation for understanding Islamic expectations concerning faith, worship and behavior. The eight themes, as stated by Cragg, are: God and His praise Man in creation Prophethood in human guidance prior to Muhammad Muhammad in his Meccan environment Muhammad in his Medinan locale Religious Law and devotion Social Law and society The Last Things Study of the Quran is not complete without an understanding of the importance that aesthetics of recitation plays in worship. As we have already discussed in Session Three, memorization and recitation of Quranic verse are important Muslim practices. The aural dimension of the Quran helps the believer access Gods message through sound. As we shall explore later, calligraphic Arabic writing adds an artistic dimension in revering Allahs word as well. Guiding Questions 1. Cragg states that Muslim conviction sees divine communication and Muhammad8217s messengership as the two aspects of a single fact.(page 18) How is the merging of these two concepts important to Islamic theology What roles did the conception and recording of the Quran play in explaining Craggs quote and in establishing this as a holy book 2. Cragg also discussed the concept of there-and-then in concern for here and now. (p. 27). Is there a correlation between the role and interpretations of the Quran and the life styles of Muslims during different historical time periods Explain. 3. Discuss the role of the Quran in providing direction for an ethical life. Incorporate the inclusion of the eight themes in the discussion. Joseph Story : The Joseph story is one of the best known and best-loved traditional narratives among Jewish, Christian and Muslim peoples. Jews and Christians know it in its Biblical form as it appears in Genesis 35-50. (Jews also know many embellishments to the story, which are found in Talmudic literature.) Muslims know it its Quranic form as told in Surah 12 (Chapter 12). The reading from J. Kaltner, Inquiring of Joseph, ix-xx 23-43 will be particularly helpful in framing your reading of the Quranic and Genesis accounts of the Joseph story. 4. In comparing the Biblical and Quranic traditions of the Joseph materials, try to assess what the distinctive features of each narrative are: the stylistic aspects of each account, its probable role in Jewish, Christian or Muslim religious lives, and its place in the larger historical understanding of each of these traditions. What are the differences in the plots of the two accounts How does character development differ in the two accounts What might bethe purpose andor effect of such differences What is the narrative standpoint from which each account is told Which accounts seem more didactic Where do the emphases upon particular events lie in each account Are the virtues and vices depicted in each account comparable How does Joseph himself appear in each account Finally, can you make some generalizations about the overall character of the Quranic narrative as opposed to the Biblical narrative 5. After comparing the Biblical and Quranic versions of the story of Joseph, read the Malay and Swahili narratives. How do these stories and their portrayals of Joseph compare and contrast with those of the Bible and the Quran Given that the Joseph story is already told in the Muslim scripture, what do you think is achieved by re-telling it in each tradition In the re-telling of the story, how is it indigenized or acculturated 6. John Renard writes that because of the long love affair that generations of Muslims across the world have had with Joseph, he has become a comprehensive reminder of the various aspects of the Islamic tradition. Provide some instances from the readings in support of this statement. 7. Cragg states that Creed, code, cult, community and culture are five cs in necessary inter-relation in every religion. (page 41). Use these five concepts to compare and contrast the variations of the Joseph story included in the readings. Include how the sources of the Joseph story reflect Christian, Jewish and Islamic ideologies. 8. After viewing and hearing the multi-media resources, reflect upon the importance of the aural and visual arts in Muslim devotional life. top Session Four readings consider the Quran as a written literary text, that is, in its physical form as a compiled book. Discussion of the Qurans style, structure and contents, its terminology and world-view and the diverse ways in hellip Comments Off on Seminar Four: The Qur8217an: Major Themes top We can trace much of the diversity in the Muslim world to religious, philosophical, and political tensions that arose in the centuries after the Prophet Muhammads death. Sunni and Shia communities, for example, were divided by disagreements on the succession of leadership after Muhammad, while the rise of a Sufi counterculture was in part a reaction to the un-Islamic lifestyles of political leaders. The early Muslim communities struggled over the authority and legitimacy of community leaders, the relationship between political and religious leadership, and the correct interpretation of the Quran and Muhammads life. One of the most decisive problems for early Muslims concerned authority and leadership. By the end of Muhammads life, most of the Arab tribes had formed a united community of believers ( ummah ), with Muhammad acting as their leader both in religious and political matters. But Muhammad was the Seal of the Prophets the authority of his successor, therefore, would not be based on prophethood. It was up to the early Muslims to determine the nature and function of leadership in their communities. When Muhammad died in 632, many members of the ummah felt that the Prophet had not designated a successor, and by general consensus Muhammads father-in-law Abu Bakr was elected the first successor (calpih). Others believed that Muhammad had appointed his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Ali Talib as his successor, and believed that Ali, as a member of Muhammads immediate family, was best qualified to guide the ummah. Alis supporters were known as the Shiat Ali . the Partisans of Ali, and agitated for Ali to become the caliph. In 680, the struggle between supporters of the early caliphs and the Shia culminated in the battle of Karbala where Alis son Husayn was murdered by the army of Yazid. The martyrdom of Husayn was considered a grave injustice by all Muslims, but was a profound tragedy for the Shia. The commemoration of Husayns martyrdom remains central to Shia religious identity. In addition to the problems of succession and leadership, Muslims also debated how the teachings of the Quran and other scripture should be applied in practice. The Quran provided guidance on many aspects of religious and social life, but some felt that it did not contain clear instruction on all possible religious and legal questions. To clarify the Qurans practical teachings, Muslims relied on sunnah . the customs and practices of the Prophet as recorded in Hadith . extra-quranic quotations and eyewitness reports of Muhammads behavior. Scholars traveled throughout the Muslim world collecting Hadith, while carefully scrutinizing their authenticity. Only those Hadith which were transmitted by an unbroken chain of reliable sources were deemed acceptable. All members of the ummah strove to adopt the message of the Quran and emulate Muhammad, who was celebrated as the uswa al-hasana (the most beautiful model). The Quran and sunnah . the most authoritative guides to religious and social life, were the primary sources for shariah . the path of right conduct and behavior as revealed by God. Scholars studied the Quran and hadith in order to clarify shariah . Several schools of jurisprudence were formed, each with its own method for arriving at legal rulings. Although all rulings were based on scripture, the ambiguity of the primary sources on certain issues required the use of systematic reasoning, based on methods sanctioned by each school. Some jurists, and later theologians and philosophers, developed sophisticated intellectual methods, some drawing from traditions of ancient Greek philosophy others became uncomfortable with the application of potentially fallible human reason to religious law and theology, and argued for a literal application of the Quran and sunnah . Four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence were to emerge from these debates. Each school attracted its own followers, and at times there were bitter rivalries between schools. Muslims sought the opinions and guidance of religious scholars, the ulama . marking them as authorities on religious matters. Political leaders also patronized the ulama . establishing endowments for centers of learning. In areas where political authority was less centralized, the ulama fulfilled a number of leadership roles, and took on a degree of political power as well. The Shia developed their own approaches to jurisprudence. While the rulings of Shia jurists did not deviate significantly from those of the Sunni schools, their approach to authority was quite unique. The Shia refused to accept the legitimacy of the early caliphs, remaining loyal to the descendants of Ali, whom they called Imams . spiritual leaders. As a descendant of Muhammads immediate family, each Imam was believed to inherit special insight and authority in the practice of scriptural interpretation. As such, the Imam was considered to be an essential intermediary between God and the Shia community. In addition to hadiths of the Prophet, the Shia collected similar traditions from the Imams . extending the sources of shariah beyond those accepted by the Sunni jurists. A dispute over the succession of the seventh Imam led to a further division among Shia, creating the Twelver and Ismaili communities. With the success and territorial expansion of political dynasties, government officials began to accumulate unprecedented wealth and power, and at times their lifestyles were considered at odds with shariah . Following the model of Muhammads simple lifestyle, some Muslims, called Sufis, renounced worldly gains and turned to lives of poverty and ascetic practice. Sufis explored mystical and symbolic interpretations of Islamic rituals and scriptures to uncover their deeper significance. Most Sufis had extensive training in Islamic law and its guidelines for ritual and social behavior, but strove to apply shariah to their inner lives as well. They formulated a personal, emotional vision of Islam, internalizing the meaning of the Quran and Muhammads life. The spiritual accomplishments of the Sufis attracted followers and students, and Sufi brotherhoods gradually spread beyond local political loyalties. A Sufi masters teachings and conduct could become the source of inspiration for followers. This spiritual allegiance would continue even after a masters death, with followers making pilgrimages to his tomb. It should be clear that while early Muslims were unified in their belief in the Quran and sunnah . they came to interpret the meaning of Islam in diverse ways. All Muslims agreed on the authority of the Quran, but they actively debated the authority of political and religious leaders, the limits of human reason, and the compatibility of spiritual and worldly aspirations. Guiding Questions At the heart of many of the sectarian movements among Muhammads followers was the problem of establishing legitimate leadership. How did the early Muslims make sense of the shift in the leadership from Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets to his successors who could not claim the authority of prophethood What were the Sunni and Shia solutions to this problem How did the qualifications for legitimate rule differ according to these communities with respect to education, family and tribal identity, spirituality, wealth, and politics The readings for this session describe different approaches to scriptural, religious, and political authority. What were the important sources of authority for each sectarian movement In the case where more than one source of authority was accepted, how were these sources reconciled Think about the role of hierarchical structures of authority. Do you see similarities between authority in Shia and Sufi traditions, especially in their concepts of religious leadership Ernst distinguishes between philosophical ethics based on reason and religious ethics based on revelation (p. 110). How does this distinction relate to the early schools of Islamic law and theology, especially the Mutazilites, Asharites, and People of Hadith What was the role of reason and revelation in establishing Shariah and practicing philosophy Why did some jurists argue the necessity of reason to interpret the Quran and Sunnah Ernst argues that the concept of what is called Western civilization should. include Islam on the grounds of Muslim philosophers active engagement with ancient Greek thinkers. After centuries of neglect, European philosophers rediscovered Greek philosophy and translated the works of Plato and Aristotle, as well as the original works of Muslim philosophers, from Arabic into Latin. Greek philosophy, widely considered the foundation for Western philosophy, was preserved and developed by Muslims. Still, Muslim philosophers are rarely acknowledged for this work. Ernst calls this one of the great areas of selective amnesia about the nature of Western civilization. How is this selective amnesia an argument for European superiority What are the implications of including Islam in the concept of Western civilization top We can trace much of the diversity in the Muslim world to religious, philosophical, and political tensions that arose in the centuries after the Prophet Muhammads death. Sunni and Shia communities, for example, were divided by disagreements on hellip Comments Off on Seminar Five: Communities of Interpretation top The centuries leading up to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century saw a culmination of Muslim spiritual and intellectual traditions, with masterpieces of literature, metaphysics, and theology. Sufi mystics, seeking a personal, subjective experience of God, gradually came to form networks of fraternal orders spanning the Muslim world. The language of their teachings was rich in symbolism and metaphor, inspiring poets like Jalal ud-Din Rumi (d. 1273) to compose literature of supreme beauty and vitality. Thinkers such as Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111) drew upon developments in Muslim intellectual traditions, as well as Greek philosophy and Neoplatonism, in their influential writings on mysticism and theology. They organized these ideas into comprehensive systems of faith, integrating objective and subjective forms of knowledge and religious experience. Even during the Prophet Muhammads lifetime some Muslims were moved to express their deep devotion to God with special spiritual disciplines. Citing such hadiths as poverty is my pride, they turned away from worldly accomplishments to adopt a simple lifestyle of voluntary poverty. These renunciates strove to realize the spiritual significance the message of the Quran, and the virtues of the lifestyle outlined by the hadith and sunnah. These spiritual practices were firmly grounded in the Quran, with its allusions to the Night of Power when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad, as well as the miraj, the Prophets miraculous journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and ascension through the seven heavens into the presence of God. Muslims borrowed the language and symbolism of such events in order to express their own spiritual growth and experience of God, seeking the deeper, mystical meaning of the Quran and sunnah. Muslim mystics were called Sufis, perhaps due to the coarse woolen ropes they wore (suf is Arabic for wool), in contrast to the lavish attire of political leaders and officials. Sufis considered the extravagant lifestyles of these officials to be at odds with the teachings of the Quran and shariah, and sought to turn away from worldly accomplishments, like wealth and political power, which were considered distractions from their devotions. Details from the lives of early Sufis are recorded in stories which exemplify a deep-seated devotion to the basic teachings of Islam. For example, Sufis strove to replace their own selfish desires with the love of God. This teaching was exemplified by Rabia al-Adawiyya (d. 801) who, with a torch in one hand and a bucket of water in the other, exclaimed, I want to dowse the fires of hell and set fire to heaven so that people will love Godnot out of their fear of hell or the hope of heavenbut for his own sake. Likewise, the importance of tawhid, the affirmation of Gods unity, was famously dramatized by Husayn Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922). In a state of mystical ecstasy, Hallaj extended the implications of tawhid by claiming to be a manifestation of the divine truth. Although Hallaj was executed as a heretic, in Sufi literature his martyrdom became a popular symbol for unwavering sacrifice and mystical union with God. From the 11th century, Sufism began to take on a formal organizational structure. Sufis began to write systematic treatises and organize themselves into loose affiliations, on par with the various schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Often Sufi orders were structured around a spiritual master, one who had progressed through a number mystical stages, and, in the process, achieved the qualities of sainthood. These Sufi masters, called sheikhs (spiritual guides), attracted students who congregated at meeting houses to receive instruction. Even after the death of a sheikh, students and devotees visited the tomb of the master to receive his blessing (baraka). These tombs became popular centers of pilgrimage throughout the Muslim world, and the sheikh was thought to function as an intercessor between God and the pilgrims. The concept of intercession in Sufism is not unlike the special status of the Prophets family and Imams in Shiism. Alongside the formation of Sufi orders, schools of theology and philosophy studied the scriptures and sunnah some even began to consider their faith in light of neighboring intellectual traditions. The writings of Plato, Aristotle and the Neoplatonists were especially influential among Muslim intellectuals who questioned how these systems of logic, cosmology, and metaphysics could enhance Muslims understanding of the Qurans teachings. Mutazilite theologians represented the rationalist position, arguing that the universe was arranged by certain principles that can be discovered by reason alone. Others felt that there were limits to the power of reason, and felt that God and his creation could be known primarily through divine revelation as conveyed in the Quran. A third group of theologians, the Asharites, adopted a compromise, accepting the use of reason as a tool in theological debates, but conceding that God ultimately transcends reason. Asharite theologians were thoroughly educated in logic and philosophy, and their positions reflect a synthesis of the major intellectual traditions current in the Middle East and surrounding areas. Early Muslim philosophers wove ideas from Greek and neo-Platonist philosophy into their metaphysical teachings regarding the relationship between God and the universe. Ibn Sina (d. 1037), also known as Avicenna, wrote important commentaries on Greek philosophy which were to play a central role in the so-called rediscovery of philosophy by Christian scholastics like Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). But Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina did not merely preserve earlier traditions they incorporated these ideas into Islamic intellectual traditions and made original contributions to philosophy and theology. The various intellectual traditions outlined above, namely, Sufism, theology, and philosophy, were brought together by Asharite theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111), whose synthesis would be widely accepted as an integration of Sufi mysticism, shariah based religion, and philosophical methods. Al-Ghazzalis biography is itself an embodiment of this synthesis. An accomplished professor in Islamic jurisprudence, al-Ghazzali gave up a prestigious professorship to devote himself to the search for a deeper faith. This search led to an elegant formulation of Islam, which reconciled the teachings of the Quran and the ritualism of shariah, with the personal experience of God found in Sufism. Al-Ghazzali argued for an integration of the objective knowledge of the scholars and the subjective knowledge of the Sufis. This fusion of reason and emotion, of outer and inner religious life, was the culmination of centuries of debates between mystics, theologians, and philosophers to many, it would prove a satisfying solution to these debates, and a successful integration of shariah and mysticism. Guiding Questions At one time Western scholars of Islam felt that Sufism was incompatible with Islam and tried to establish, unconvincingly, that it was the product of Hindu or Christian influence. To this day the artistic expressions of Sufis, such as Jalal ud-Din Rumi, are among the most popular expressions of Islam in the West. Is there a connection between these two phenomena What about Sufism allows it to transcend the generally negative image of Islam in the West Are there similarities between Sufi and Western ideals, and if so, do they withstand scrutiny What does it mean to say that Sufism is the internalization of Islam and Sharia Occasionally one hears that Islam forbids music and representational art this misconception fails to recognize countless examples of such art forms created by Muslim artists. In Ernsts discussion of Islamic art, he makes a distinction between Islamic art which is directly connected to religion, and Islamicate art which is non-religious and may be created by both Muslims and non-Muslims. Try to apply this distinction to examples of visual art, architecture, literature, and music. What can you say about the differences between Islamic and Islamicate art, and, for that matter, the general usefulness of this distinction Think about artistic traditions in your own community, and the role of religions in these traditions. To what degree is the IslamicIslamicate distinction analogous to the distinction between sacred and secular art Both Sells and Ernst describe the relationship between the lives of the early Sufis and the teachings of the Quran and the life of Muhammad. Events from Muhammads life became spiritual models for Sufis for example, the Night of Power, when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad, and the miraj, Muhammads ascension into the presence of God. How do these events lend themselves to mystical interpretations How could Sufis model their own spiritual experiences upon these events without claiming the status of prophethood What is the role of the Quran and sunnah in Sufism How do the basic values of Sufism such as tawhid (affirmation of Gods unity), tawakkul (trust in God), and rida (contentment with Gods will) relate to the message of the Quran Why did some Muslims reject Sufi practices and teachings How do you account for tensions between Sufis and political leaders, as well as between Sufis and religious leaders Lapidus states that by the 13th century a Sunni-scripturalist-Sufi orientation had emerged as the normative form of Sunni Islam. Consider the variety of Muslim intellectual and religious traditions in currency prior to the 13th century. Which traditions played the largest roles in the formation of this normative consensus Which approaches to jurisprudence, philosophy, theology, and mysticism did this consensus exclude and why Compare and contrast the roles of intercession and pilgrimage in Shiism and Sufism. What was the intellectual and political context of al-Ghazzalis synthesis of various strands of philosophy, theology, and mysticism Why was this synthesis so successful top The centuries leading up to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century saw a culmination of Muslim spiritual and intellectual traditions, with masterpieces of literature, metaphysics, and theology. Sufi mystics, seeking a personal, subjective experience of God, gradually hellip Comments Off on Seminar Six: Communities of Interpretation top The onset of European imperialism created a crisis of monumental proportions in the Muslim world. For Muslim intellectuals and religious scholars, it became abundantly clear that the nations of Europe had been able to conquer and subdue Muslim societies due to superior weaponry and machinery. The crisis, however, was not simply political or technological. It was also economic, social and cultural, as the structures and institutions introduced by the colonial powers brought with them a range of challenges to traditional Muslim world-views and perspectives on a wide range of issues. For instance, with European colonialism came the idea of secularism and the notion that sovereignty, the ability to make laws, and to determine right from wrong, rested neither with God nor with religious institutions claiming to interpret Gods will, but with the consensus of the people as expressed in the institutions of the state. Colonialism also brought it with Christian missionaries who were anxious to take advantage of the opportunities to spread their religion under the benevolent protection of the colonial state. These missionaries, along with early western scholars who studied Islam under colonial patronage, promoted the view that Islamic doctrines, practices and concepts, such as jihad, polygamy, the veil, and the sharia, were evidence that Islam was a backward religion, incompatible with progress and development. Hence, it was their duty to embark on a mission that was to simultaneously Christianize and to civilize colonial subjects and show them the way to progress. In the civilizing mission of European imperialism, Muslim communities were confronted with a force that was powerful enough to transform them into its own image, using brute military might, if necessary. For many Muslims, the political, cultural and religious denigration they experienced under colonial rule resulted in a crisis of faith as religious ideals chafed against historical realities. Viewed particularly from the perspective of Sunni Islam, to which the majority of worlds Muslims adhere, the history of their faith, until the eighteenth century, had been on the whole, with a few exceptions (such as the Crusades and Mongol invasions), a history of political triumph characterized by the steady expansion of Islam as a global religion. This political triumph, lasting many centuries, had been interpreted in theological terms: it was a sign that God was on the side of the Muslims, rewarding them with triumph in the world for faithfully following His commands. The new dominance and the visible strength of the West in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries created an uneasy feeling among many Muslims that something had gone wrong in history, triggering anxious questions. Was not the loss of hegemony in world affairs a sign that God had abandoned them because they were no longer practicing their faith correctly How were Muslims to respond to challenges to Muslim identity and faith in this new context What were the reasons for the political and economic decline Secularists blamed outmoded interpretations of Islam, its institutions and role that they played in public life for the ills facing Muslim societies. They felt that secularism, that is, separation of religion and politics and establishment of nation-states based on models derived from the West, would open the path towards modernization. By imitating the nations of Europe, they were convinced that Muslim societies would once again regain their lost dignity and their rightful place on the world stage. In contrast, conservative religious leaders (the ulama) argued that imitating the West was not a cure on the contrary the West was a deadly poison for Muslim societies. For them, Muslims were in a situation of powerlessness because they had deviated from the correct practice of religion as interpreted by the great Sunni scholars of the ninth and tenth centuries, the founders of the four main schools of Sunni religious jurisprudence. If Muslims were to follow carefully the teachings of the learned teachers of the past, they would surely return to the sirat al-mustaqim, the right path and then, perhaps, God would be on their side once again. Islamic modernism emerged as a compromise between secularly based advocacy of Western ideals and religiously motivated rejection of these ideals. It was an attempt by Muslim intellectuals, many of whom were not part of the traditional religious elite, to reconcile fundamentals of the Islamic faith with modern concepts such as nationalism, constitutionalism, rationality, scientific inquiry, modern western style education, womens rights and so on. Its leaders struggled to redefine Islam in terms of dominant Western values and to demonstrate its ability to adapt to the new world that Muslims encountered as their societies modernized. Integral to Islamic modernism was a process of internal self-criticism in which Muslim intellectuals struggled to come to terms with causes of decline while at the same time developing interpretations of Islam that accommodated modernity. For Islamic modernists, the ulama, through their old-fashioned and outdated modes of interpreting Islam and its religious texts, constituted a major part of obstacle in the path of reinvigorating Islam in the new context. For instance, a leading modernist, Jamal ad-Din Al-Afghani (1838-1897), felt that the ulama, by stifling independent and rational thought, had been responsible for the decline of Islamic civilization. Claiming that they were the true enemies of Islam, he likened them to a very narrow wick on top which is a very small flame that neither lights its surroundings nor gives light to others. (as quoted in Reza Aslan, There is no god but God, p. 230) The modernists challenged the status of the ulama as sole authoritative interpreters of the faith by declaring that the doors to ijtihad, individual interpretation, had never been closed. According to the modernists, the notion of taqlid, following or adhering to the interpretations of the learned, had been clearly promoted by the ulama to bolster their authority and suppress alternative viewpoints and interpretations. Viewed from this perspective, Islamic modernism was nothing short of an outright rebellion against the Islamic orthodoxy, and displayed an astonishing compatibility with the nineteenth century Enlightenment. (M. Moaddel and K. Talattof, Modernist and Fundamentalist Debates in Islam, p.1) Not surprisingly the ulama did not take too kindly to Modernist attacks on their authority and used their traditional control over the masses to fight against the Modernist vision by declaring its proponents to be kafirs, or infidels. and apostates. The readings for this Session cover the period between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, when a group of prominent Muslim thinkers promoted the Modernist vision in the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. They critically examined traditional conceptions of various aspects of Islamic thought, including legal systems, and called for new ways of interpreting the Quran and the other sources of Islamic jurisprudence. The most prominent of the modernists was Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-97) around whom developed a circle of influential disciples. Al-Afghani promoted the view that Islam, correctly interpreted, was a socio-political ideology and civilization whose values were superior to Western civilization and could be used to unite politically Muslims of different nationalities and ethnicities against European colonialism. In this regard, he is often perceived as the father of pan-Islamism. He was also a strong advocate for the adoption of modern science which he considered central to the survival of Muslim civilization against European cultural onslaught. Muhammad Abduh (1849-1905), an Egyptian scholar, was one of the most prominent disciples of al-Afghani. Together they founded a short-lived journal called Al-Urwah al-wuthqa which vehemently opposed European imperialism and demanded Islamic reform and unity. Based on his familiarity and training in traditional Islamic education, Abduh called for a fresh interpretation of the Quran and the sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad so that it was more appropriate to a modern context. Indeed, for him, interpretation of divinely revealed texts was a dynamic process in which reason and revelation were to be harmonious. In his eyes, anyone who denied scientific truths or the importance of rationality was committing a grievous sin. On account of his teaching position at Al-Azhar, a premier institution of learning in the Sunni world, he was able to influence students who came from as far as Indonesia and Malaysia. Abduh espoused his ideas in al-Manar The Beacon a journal widely read in parts of the Muslim world. Abduh edited this journal with his disciple and biographer Muhammad Rashid al-Rida (1865-1935). While Rida, like al-Afghani and Abduh, called for a reinterpretation of the Quran as well as the compatibility of Islam with science, reason and modernity, over time he became religiously more conservative and critical of the increasing secularization of society. He advocated that Muslims follow the example of the early Muslim community, the salaf, laying the foundation for the more strident Islamist movement, the Muslim Brotherhood that was to evolve later. Qasim Amin (1863-1908) was another important figure in the circle of disciples associated with al-Afghani and Abduh. He was a prominent among the Modernists for his advocacy of equal rights for women, an end to their seclusion and, through access to education, equal participation in public life. In the Indian subcontinent, the Modernist movement arose in the aftermath of the Indian rebellion of 1857-8 when Hindu and Muslim sepoys (soldiers) began a movement to overthrow the power of the British. The British suppressed the rebellion with brutal force, with many Indians losing their lives andor their property. In this traumatic context arose a Modernist leader, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), who was firmly convinced that to make progress in the context of colonial India, the best path for the Muslims to follow was that of absolute and unwavering loyalty to the British. Furthermore, he felt that Muslims should participate fully in the Western-style educational system being established by the British so that they would not become a social and economic underclass. Western thought, he believed, was not in fundamental conflict with Islam, nor was the studying the natural sciences, for there could not be a conflict between the Quran 8211 the Word of God 8211 and Nature 8211 the Work of God. In this regard, he advocated a rational and contextual approach to Quran interpretation since Islam, according to him, accommodates historical change. To promote his ideas and provide young Muslims with Western-style higher education, he fought for and eventually founded the Anglo-Muhammadan Oriental College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University. Sayyid Ahmad Khans approach enjoyed the support of several important personalities in Indo-Muslim society and formed the basis of the so-called Aligarh Movement. Among its members were several important literati who wrote Urdu prose and poetry to disseminate their ideas. Most prominent were Altaf Husayn Hali (d. 1914) who wrote the famous poem Madd va gazr-i Islam, The Ebb and Flow of Islam, in which he contrasts the past glories and achievements of Islamic civilization with the miserable status of Muslims of his time Nazir Ahmad (d. 1912) a novelist whose writings, such as Mirat al - Arus The Brides Mirror, emphasized the need for female education and Mumtaz Ali whose major work, Huquq al-niswan, The Rights of Women, advocates complete equality between men and women. Perhaps the most radical of Sir Sayyids collaborators was Chiragh Ali (d. 1895) who not only dismissed traditional Islamic jurisprudence, but more controversially considered the genre of hadith, accounts of the Prophets deeds and statements, to be entirely fabricated. A significant intellectual and financial supporter of Aligarh Muslim University was Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III (1877-1957), Imam, or spiritual leader, of the Ismaili branch of the Shia Muslims. Sultan Muhammad Shah utilized his religious authority to institute a social, economic, and educational revolution among his followers that had far reaching consequences, including dramatically improving the status of Ismaili women. For instance, he declared the seclusion of women to be crime, and abolished the practice of veiling among his followers. During his lifetime, Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah held several leadership positions within Indias Muslim community organizations representing their interests before the British. In an international context he represented India at the League of Nations, the predecessor to the present-day United Nations, being elected to its presidency in 1937. As you read about Islamic Modernism, it is worth keeping in mind that it is a complex movement, far from being monolithic for it is comprised of several strands some which were in deep disagreement and contradiction with each other. Such tensions inherent in the movement would explain why Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was quite critical of the ideas and outlook of a fellow Modernist, Sayyid Ahmad Khan whom he considered to be a puppet of the British colonialists. Guiding Questions List at least five specific challenges that modernity posed to Muslim societies. What is Islamic Modernism As you read the selections, what are the various definitions of Islamic Modernism What is the difference in Islamic Modernism and the reformistrevivalist movements we explored in Session Eight Identify some of the challenges faced by Islamic Modernists as they sought to articulate their vision. Aside from calling for a reinterpretation of Islam, what were other areas of reform that were part of the modernist agenda As you read the writings of the men who were part of this movement, think about common themes. What kinds of subjects do they bring up repeatedly How do those themes give us insight into the criticism that Islamic Modernists may have faced top The onset of European imperialism created a crisis of monumental proportions in the Muslim world. For Muslim intellectuals and religious scholars, it became abundantly clear that the nations of Europe had been able to conquer and subdue Muslim hellip Comments Off on Seminar Nine: Islamic Modernism The second half of the twentieth century witnessed the end of European imperial rule over many parts of the world. In the aftermath of World War II, the network of institutions that had enabled European control over Asian and African societies became increasingly weak and unstable. As a result, movements for political independence blossomed in the colonies, many of which eventually declared themselves to be sovereign, independent nations. Notwithstanding the ending of formal European political rule, these new nations continue, however, to be impacted by the legacy of colonialism. This impact can be discerned in the political, economic and legal institutions they inherited, including even the conception of the nation state which historically originated in Europe. Indeed, as Vali Nasr writes, in the general reading assigned for this session, the legacy of colonialism is key in explaining both the diversity and unity of different experiments with state formation in the Muslim World. (p. 551) Muslim societies in the post colonial period have witnessed a search for satisfying and legitimate interpretations of Islam in relation to a range of issues including globalization, industrialization, uneven economic development, rapid social change, religious and ethnic pluralism. In this search all sorts of interpretations have been put forward, ranging from progressive to reactionary ones. At a political level, the failure of ideologies such as capitalism, communism, and socialism to deliver social and economic justice have prompted crucial questions concerning the role of Islam in the nation-state. As a result, Islam has sometimes come to be interpreted not simply as a system of religious beliefs, practices, morals and ethics, but as a political ideology underpinning the nation state an ideology that will solve all the problems facing contemporary Muslim societies. As Reza Aslan aptly points out in his book, No god but God. Islam has been invoked to legitimize and to overturn governments, to promote republicanism and defend authoritarianism, to justify monarchies, autocracies, oligarchies and theocracies. He points out that the proponents of each form of government have considered theirs to be the only authentically Islamic formulation, usually legitimizing their formulation by invoking their particular understanding of the state established by the Prophet Muhammad in Medina. As a consequence, he points out,.the Islamic state is by no means a monolithic concept. Indeed, there are many countries in the world that could be termed as Islamic states, none of which have much in common with each other. And yet not only do all these countries view themselves as the realization of the Medinan ideal they view each other as contemptible desecrations of that ideal. (p.257) The emergence of political Islam is a recent phenomenon in the intellectual history of Muslim societies and, as such, is clearly rooted in their colonial and post-colonial experience. Islamists, that is, those Muslims who seek to interpret Islam as a political ideology, espouse an exclusivist world-view that denies room for pluralism or diversity of interpretations. They are revisionist or ahistorical in their reading of history (they imagine an ideal past in which Muslims practiced a pure Islam) as well as the exegesis of religious texts such as the Quran and hadith. Frequently, they identify themselves through declarative external symbols such as dress and physical appearance. They tend to function well in contexts marked by political, economic and social inequities as well as general religious illiteracy where most people rely on the interpretations of those who have laid claim to some form of religio-political authority. The readings in Session Ten explore, through the case study method, some of the diverse political, economic and social contexts in which Muslims live today and the different roles that Islam plays in particular nation states. The second half of the twentieth century witnessed the end of European imperial rule over many parts of the world. In the aftermath of World War II, the network of institutions that had enabled European control over Asian and African hellip Copyright copy 2009 - Muslim Histories amp Cultures. All materials presented on this site are the property of their respective authors. Please do not reproduce them online or in print without first obtaining written permission. 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